AUTOMOBILE ACCIDENT RECONSTRUCTION:
THE “BLACK BOX”

John K. Powers

Powers & Santola, LLP
39 North Pearl Street
Albany, New York 12207
518-478-6616
jpowers@powers-santola.com

Introduction

Most people are aware that large commercial aircraft (and some smaller commercial, corporate, and private aircraft) are required by the FAA to be equipped with two "black boxes" that record information about a flight. Both recorders are installed to help reconstruct the events leading to an aircraft accident. One of these, the Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR), records radio transmissions and sounds in the cockpit, such as the pilot's voices and engine noises. The other, the Flight Data Recorder (FDR), monitors parameters such as altitude, airspeed and heading. The older analog units use one-quarter inch magnetic tape as a storage medium and the newer ones use digital technology and memory chips. Both recorders are installed in the most crash survivable part of the aircraft, usually the tail section. Each recorder is equipped with an Underwater Locator Beacon (ULB) to assist in locating the unit in the event of an over water accident. The device called a "pinger” is activated when the recorder is immersed in water. It transmits an acoustical signal on 37.5 KHz that can be detected with a special receiver. The beacon can transmit from depths down to 14,000 feet.

Following an accident, both recorders are immediately removed from the accident site and transported to NTSB headquarters in Washington D.C. for processing. Using sophisticated computer and audio equipment, the information stored on the recorders is extracted and translated into an understandable format. The Investigator-in-Charge uses this information as one of many tools to help the Safety Board determine the probable cause of the accident.

What most people are unaware of is that, during the past decade, more than six million passenger motor vehicles sold in this country have been equipped with “black boxes” capable of providing similar types of information regarding the circumstance surrounding automobile crashes.

Background

The Event Data Recorder (EDR) in an automobile is based upon the sensors and microprocessor computer system that are used to activate the airbag in the vehicle during a crash.

General Motors introduced the first regular production driver/passenger air bag systems as an option in selected 1974 production vehicles. It incorporated electromechanical g-level sensors, a diagnostic circuit that continually monitored the readiness of the air bag control circuits and an instrument panel readiness and warning lamp that illuminated if a malfunction was detected. The data-recording feature utilized fuses to indicate when a deployment command was given and stored the approximate time the vehicle was operated with the warn­ing lamp illuminated.

During the next two decades, as vehicles became increasingly sophisticated, more electronic systems and sensors were added to the automobiles.  These included engine control modules that gathered information about throttle position, engine RPM and airflow. Acceleration sensors were added to activate airbags, wheel speed sensors were added for antilock braking systems (ABS) and traction control systems and vehicle yaw rate sensors were required for stability control systems.

Beginning in 1990, a more complex Diagnostic and Energy Reserve Module (DERM) was introduced by General Motors with the added capability to record closure times for both the arming and discriminating sensors as well as any fault codes present at the time of deployment.

For the 1994 model year, the multiple electromechanical switches previously used for crash sensing were replaced by GM with the combination of a single solid state analog accelerometer and a computer algorithm integrated in a Sensing & Diagnostic Module (SDM)."

The SDM also computed and stored the change in longitudinal vehi­cle velocity (Delta-V) during the impact to provide an estimate of crash sever­ity. This feature allowed GM engineers to obtain restraint system perfor­mance data when a vehicle was involved in a deployment event or expe­rienced an impact related change in longitudinal velocity, but did not com­mand deployment (i.e. near-deployment event). The SDM also added the capability to record status of the driver’s side switch belt (buckled or unbuckled) for deployment and near deployment events. This is what we now refer to as the “Black Box” (although it is actually metallic silver in color).

The “Black Box”

Beginning with the 1999 model year, General Motors added the capability to record vehicle systems status data for several seconds before impact to many of its vehicles. Vehicle speed, engine RPM, throttle position and brake switch (on/off) status are recorded for the five seconds preceding a deployment of non-deployment event. Essentially all General Motors vehicles now have that capability.

How the System Works

Automobiles that are equipped with airbags use an algorithm to determine when the airbags should be deployed. Generally, the air bag is designed to inflate in moderate to severe frontal or near-frontal crashes . The air bag will inflate only if the impact speed is above the system's designed "threshold level." If a vehicle goes into a wall that doesn't move or deform, the threshold level is about 9 to 15 mph (14 to 24 km/h). The threshold level can vary, however, with specific vehicle design, so that it can be somewhat above or below this range.

The SDM, which is controlled by a microprocessor, has multiple functions: (1) it determines if a severe enough impact has occurred to warrant deployment of the air bag; (2) it monitors the air bag's components; and (3) it permanently records information. The SDM contains software that analyzes the longitudinal deceleration of a vehicle to determine whether a deployment event has occurred, based on testing that has been done previously to determine what events would require protection by an air bag. When the SDM senses an event (either a deployment event or an event that is not severe enough to require an air bag--that is, a near-deployment event), that information is recorded to the microprocessor's electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM). (When the air bag is deployed, the SDM records the event as a "Code 51.") Although certain diagnostic codes stored in the EEPROM can be erased, the SDM is specifically designed to prevent air-bag deployment data from being altered or erased.

Because SDM data is stored in hexadecimal format, it must ordinarily be converted to a decimal format before it can be analyzed. (A hexadecimal system is a numbering system that has 16 characters; that system employs the letters A through F, in addition to the numbers zero through nine, which are used in the decimal system.)

In mid-2000, a publicly available crash data retrieval tool (Vetronix equipment) was updated with new software to allow anyone with a Windows-based computer to download SDM data in an easy-to-read format.

As previously stated, there are two types of airbag module (SDM) recorded crash events. The first is the near deployment event. A near deployment event is an event severe enough to "wake up" the sensing algorithm but not severe enough to deploy the airbag(s). It contains pre-crash and crash data. The SDM can store up to one near-deployment event. This can be overwritten by an event that has a greater SDM recorded velocity change. This event will be cleared by the SDM after the ignition has been cycled 250 times. The second type of SDM recorded crash event is the deployment event. It also contains pre-crash and crash data. The SDM can store up to two different deployment events, if they occur within five seconds of one another. The first deployment event will be stored in the deployment file (this would have been the event that deployed the airbag) and the second deployment event will be stored in the near-deployment file. Deployment events cannot be overwritten or cleared from the SDM. Once the SDM has deployed the airbag, the SDM must be replaced.

Table 1 contains an abbreviated summary of the data recording capability of various General Motors airbag systems, based upon the year that they were introduced.

Table 1: Data Stored by Selected GM Airbag Systems

A Technical Description of the Event Data Recording Process

The crash sensing algorithm used in 1999 model year GM vehicles decides whether to deploy the airbags based on calibration values stored in the SDM reflecting that vehicle model's response to a variety of impact conditions. This predictive algorithm must make airbag deployment decisions typically within 15-50 msec (.015-.050 sec) after impact.

The SDM's longitudinal accelerometer is low-pass filtered at approximately 400 Hz. to protect against aliasing, before being input to the microcontroller. The typical SDM contains 32k bytes of ROM for program code, 512 bytes of RAM, and 512 bytes of EEPROM. Every 312 microseconds, the algorithm samples the accelerometer using an A/D converter (ADC) and when two successive samples exceed about 2 gs of deceleration, the algorithm is activated (algorithm enable).

Because of EEPROM space limitations, the SDM does not record the actual deceleration data. However, the frequency content of the crash pulse that is of interest to crash reconstructionists typically does not exceed 60 Hz and the crash pulse can therefore be well-represented by low frequency velocity change data (ΔV). The SDM computes ΔV by integrating the average of four 312-microsecond acceleration samples and stores them at 10 msec increments in RAM. Figure 1 shows the ΔV values for a representative moderately high severity crash at each 10 msec point with a smooth curve drawn through them.

Figure 1: Post-impact ΔV vs. Time

Several other sensors provide driver seat belt status, vehicle speed, engine RPM, brake on/off status, and throttle position. The driver seat belt switch signal is typically input into the SDM while the remaining sensors are monitored by one or more other electronic modules that broadcast their data onto the serial data bus. If there is an airbag deployment or a near-deployment crash, the last five seconds of data immediately preceding algorithm enable are stored in EEPROM. All stored data can later be recovered using a laptop PC equipped with appropriate software and interface hardware.

Figure 2 shows how the pre-impact sensor data would appear when downloaded. To understand this requires some knowledge of the serial data bus and the SDM's role. First, the serial data bus operates as a "contention" type of bus. Electronic modules transmit data based on a "send on change" design. For example, when engine speed changes by at least 32 RPM, the engine microcontroller broadcasts the new RPM value on the serial bus.

Figure 2: Pre-impact Vehicle Data vs. Time

Once each second, the SDM takes the most recent sensor data values and stores them in a recirculating buffer (RAM), one storage location for each parameter for a total of 5 seconds. When the airbag sensing system algorithm "enables" shortly after impact, buffer refreshing is suspended. Note that algorithm enable is asynchronous with the transmission of vehicle speed and other data. Hence, the data on the bus can be skewed in time from the crash by as much as one second.

The modules that broadcast the sensor data (engine RPM, brake status, etc.) also diagnose the sensors for faults and indicate the data's validity to the SDM. The bus is also constructed so failures of the serial link are detected by the SDM. At the time of deployment, the state of the driver's seat belt switch, the manual cutoff passenger airbag switch (if equipped), warning lamp state, and time to deployment are temporarily stored in RAM. The critical parameter values used to make the deployment decision are also captured in RAM.

When 150 msec have elapsed from algorithm enable, the data stored in RAM are transferred to the EEPROM. It requires about 0.7 sec to permanently record all information. Once a deployment record is written the data are frozen in EEPROM and cannot be erased, altered, or cleared by service or crash investigation personnel.

The recording of near-deployment data includes the pre-impact vehicle speed, engine RPM, etc. The criteria used to determine whether a near-deployment event is stored in EEPROM is based on the maximum ΔV observed during the event. If this maximum ΔV is larger than the previously recorded ΔV, the new near-deployment event is stored along with the corresponding pre-impact data. The near-deployment record is cleared after 250 ignition cycles. This is equivalent to an average of about 60 days of driving. Each time the algorithm is enabled and no deployment is commanded, the SDM compares the maximum ΔV previously stored with the maximum ΔV of this new event to decide whether to update the near-deployment event data.

Data Accuracy, Limitations, and Validation

Event information consists of discrete and variable data. Discrete data includes: brake switch status, manual passenger airbag cutoff switch position, and the driver seat belt switch status. Variable data includes: the analog acceleration information from which ΔV is computed, vehicle speed, engine RPM, and throttle position. Table 2 shows the accuracy and resolution for the variable-type parameters recorded for the 1999 SDM.

Table 2: Accuracy and Resolution of Data Recorded

There are three main sources of error in estimating ΔV. One error comes from the tolerance of the components in the SDM and the microcontroller. The hardware elements include the accelerometer, the analog-to-digital converter (ADC), low pass filter, and signal conditioning. The accelerometer and ADC contribute the largest portion of the total system error. Accelerometer accuracy is about 8% of full scale which equates to a ΔV error of + 4.5 mph. ADC error is about 0.25 gs, not including quantization noise. Over a 150 msec recording period, the ADC contributes a maximum error of + 0.8 mph.

The second ΔV error is due to integer-based arithmetic and representing ΔV using single data bytes. For a 56 mph full-scale value, 7 bits (plus a sign bit) equates to a precision of 0.438 mph.

The third error source, which applies only to 1999 model vehicles, results from the crash-sensing algorithm continuously applying a 1g bias acceleration in the opposite direction to that seen in frontal impacts. This bias prevents inadvertent airbag deployments resulting from ΔV accumulation when driving on rough roads and contributes an underestimation error of 3.3 mph at the end of 150 msec. GM is in the process of updating its software to eliminate this error source. In the meantime, the downloading tool will utilize software to compensate for the bias.

In the worst case, the total error in ΔV is 5.7 mph (4.5 + 0.8 + 0.4) for a full-scale reading of 56 mph. The RMS error, assuming independent error sources, is approximately 1.53 mph.

Another less predictable error comes from the potential for losing electrical power during the crash. While the SDM maintains the defacto industry standard energy reserve for airbag deployment, the reserve is insufficient to guarantee that all event data will be recorded in every crash. However, if it is not recorded, the SDM indicates this condition in the data record. A power loss during a crash generally will not affect data that was previously recorded.

Retrieving Event Data from GM Vehicles

Initially, General Motors used a proprietary Event Data Retrieval Unit (EDRU) that interfaced with a standard Tech 1 scan tool to download data through the vehicle diagnostic connector. Data could be viewed on the Tech 1 or printed from the EDRU's printer, and all data is displayed in a hexadecimal format. For vehicles that have sustained electrical system damage, interface cables are provided for powering the system and connecting the SDM directly to the EDRU (see Figure 3).

Figure 3: GM Event Data Retrieval Unit

In 1998, General Motors licensed manufacturing rights to the Vetronix Corporation to build a data retrieval tool for the Sensing and Diagnostic Module (SDM) – based EDR. In early 2000 Vetronix Corporation began selling its Crash Data Retrieval (CDR) system. The system allows the user to connect directly between a notebook computer and many General Motors vehicles equipped with an SDM. The connection can be made between the vehicle’s diagnostic connector, typically located below the steering wheel or directly to the SDM in those situations when the vehicle’s electrical system has been damaged in the crash (See Figure 4). The Vetronix Crash Data Retrieval (CDR) system consists of hardware and software that downloads pre- and post-crash data from the vehicle's airbag module (SDM) to a laptop computer. The Windows^® based CDR software presents this data in easy-to-read graphs and tables.

The CDR system can be purchased directly from Vetronix by calling (800) 321-4889. The current cost of the system is $2,495.00. The CDR system contains: a 6' extension cable; AC/DC 12V power supply; airbag module; interface cables (2); cigarette lighter power cable; crash data retrieval module; PC interface cable; vehicle interface cable; Windows^® 95/98 based software CD including help files / manual and a storage case for the entire kit.

All SDM recorded data is measured, calculated, and stored internally, except for the following: vehicle speed, engine speed, and percent throttle data is transmitted, once a second by the powertrain control module (PCM) via the Class 2 data link, to the SDM. Brake switch circuit status data is transmitted, once a second by either the ABS module or the PCM via the Class 2 data link, to the SDM. Depending on vehicle option content, the brake switch circuit status data may not be available. In most cases, the driver's belt switch circuit is wired directly to the SDM. In some vehicles, the driver's belt switch circuit status data is transmitted from the Body Control Module (BCM), via the Class 2 data link, to the SDM. The passenger front airbag suppression switch circuit is wired directly to the SDM.

Figure 4: Vetronix Event Data Recovery System

The following is a List of Vehicles Equipped with an Event Data Recorder (EDR)

Airbag Module Data

For vehicles that correspond with the 02002888 cable, the following data is available from the airbag module for recorded deployment and near-deployment files:

Data Summary Table

• SIR warning lamp status (on/off)
• Driver’s belt switch circuit status (on/off)
• Passenger front airbag suppression switch circuit status (on/off)
• Ignition cycles at deployment/near-deployment
• Ignition cycles at investigation
• Time from algorithm enable to deployment command (msec)
• Time from near-deployment to deployment command (sec) (if within 5 seconds) 

Post-Crash Graph: SDM Recorded Velocity Change

• Plots change in forward velocity (MPH) versus time for 300 msec after algorithm enable.

For vehicles that correspond with the 02002828 cable, the following data is available from the airbag module for recorded deployment and near-deployment files:[19]

Data Summary Table

• SIR warning lamp status (on/off)
• Driver’s belt switch circuit status (on/off)
• Passenger front airbag suppression switch circuit status (on/off)
• Ignition cycles at deployment/near-deployment
• Ignition cycles at investigation
• Time from algorithm enable to deployment command (msec)
• Time from near-deployment to deployment command (sec) (if within 5 seconds)
• Time from algorithm enable to pretensioner deployment command criteria met (msec)

Post-Crash Graph: SDM Recorded Velocity Change

• Plots change in forward velocity (MPH) versus time for 300 msec after algorithm enable.

For vehicles that correspond with the 02002829 cable, the following data is available from the airbag module for recorded deployment and near-deployment files:

Pre-Crash Graph

• Vehicle speed 5 seconds before algorithm enable (MPH)
• Engine speed 5 seconds before algorithm enable (RPM)
• Percent throttle 5 seconds before algorithm enable
• Brake switch circuit status 5 seconds before algorithm enable (on/off)

Data Summary Table

• SIR warning lamp status (on/off)
• Driver’s belt switch circuit status (buckled/unbuckled)
• Passenger front airbag suppression switch circuit status (on/off)
• Ignition cycles at deployment/near-deployment events (msec) (if within 5 seconds)

Post-Crash Graph: SDM Adjusted Algorithm Velocity Change[20]

• Plots change in forward velocity (MPH) versus time for 150 msec after algorithm enable

The following six pages contain a copy of a typical Vetronix report.

The Ford Motor Company System

Ford began installing a single Restraint Control system (RCM) beginning in 1997. The primary function of the RCM was to control deployment of occupant protection systems (air bags, seat belt pre-tensioner, etc.). In addition, the RCM system stored a limited amount of air bag deployment data. Ford introduced a more advanced RCM in its model year 2000 Taurus and Sable vehicles that were equipped with advanced occupant protection. This system records longitudinal and lateral acceleration, along with some data related to the driver and passenger air bag deployment including: 80 milliseconds of crash pulse; deployment strategy of the dual-stage air bag system; seat belt use; pre-tensioner operation; and driver seat position.

The Ford system is different than the Vetronix CDR tool. Unlike the Vetronix CDR, the Ford system only allows the user to connect directly between a notebook computer and the vehicle’s diagnostic connector (J1962 or Universal Serial Bus Connector). Unlike the Vetronix tool, the Ford unit cannot simulate the on-board bus or sensors, therefore the unit cannot be connected directly to the to the RCMs. Thus, in those cases when the vehicle’s electrical system has been damaged in the crash, EDR boxes must be removed and sent to Ford for downloading. Further, the RCM were designed to be reusable. The Ford RCM does not store the crash event file in a permanent or incorruptible format. It will be overwritten by the next deployment event. In addition, the Ford software only provides a hexadecimal file that must be interpreted by the manufacturer.

Another major shortcoming of the Ford RCM system has been noted when there has been a complete electrical system failure in the Taurus/Sable. When this has occurred, an incomplete file was written from the EDR. This resulted in lost data in most of the severe crashes involving these vehicle.

The Following is a List of Firms and Individuals that Provide Event Data Recorder (EDR) Data Recovery Services:

Is the data from a “Black Box” admissible?

To date, there is only one reported case dealing with the admissibility of the data that is downloaded from an SDM. In July, 2002, the Appellate Court for the Fourth District of Illinois, applying a Frye standard, held that “the trial court did not abuse its discretion by (1) finding that the process of recording and downloading SDM data is sufficiently established to have gained general acceptance in the relevant scientific community and, thus, (2) determining that the Frye admissibility standard had been satisfied.”

Bachman v. General Motors Corporation, 2002 Ill. App. LEXIS 659 (Appellate Court of Illinois, Fourth District) July 29, 2002.

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Krafft, M.; Kullgren, A.; Tingvall, C.; Bostroem, O.; Fredriksson, R. 2000. How Crash Severity in Rear Impacts Influences Short and Long-term Consequences to the Neck. Folksam Research and Development, Stockholm (Sweden)/ Monash University, Accident Research Centre, Clayton, Victoria (Australia)/ Autoliv AB, Vaargaarda (Sweden) 9 p. Accident Analysis and Prevention, Vol. 32, No. 2, Mar 2000, pp. 187-195. UMTRI-61502

Goebelbecker, J. M.; Ferrone, C. 2000. Utilizing Electronic Control Module Data in Accident Reconstruction. Triodyne Consulting Engineers, Niles, Ill. 7 p. Accident Reconstruction: Analysis, Simulation, and Visualization. Warrendale, SAE, 2000, pp. 83-89. Report No. SAE-2000-01-0466. UMTRI-93282 A07

Kullgren, A.; Krafft, M.; Nygren, AA.; Tingvall, C. 2000. Neck Injuries in Frontal Impacts: Influence of Crash Pulse Characteristics on Injury Risk. Folksam Research and Development, Stockholm (Sweden)/ Karolinska Institutet, Department of Clinical Neuroscience and Family Medicine, Stockholm (Sweden)/ Monash University, Accident Research Centre, Clayton, Victoria (Australia) 9 p. Accident Analysis and Prevention, Vol. 32, No. 2, Mar 2000, pp. 197-205. UMTRI-61503

Marsh J. 2000. Ford’s New Taurus and Sable; The Safety Network; pp. 4-5; November, 2000

Sabow, G. 2000. (IVU Inst). "Driving Data Recorders (FDS) and Young Drivers." Around the World in Two and a Half Days: Lessons from the UK Proceedings(2000).

To, H; Choudhry, O.; April, 2000. Mayday Plus Operational Test Evaluation Report. Minnesota Department of Transportation.

Wouters, P. I. J.; Bos, J. M. J. 2000. Traffic Accident Reduction by Monitoring Driver Behavior with In-Car Data Recorders. Institute for Road Safety Research SWOV, Leidschendam (Netherlands) 8 p. Accident Analysis and Prevention, Vol. 32, No. 5, Sept 2000, pp. 643-650. UMTRI-61880

1999

Record of the U.S. DOT/National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) Event Data Recorder (EDR) Working Group, Docket NHTSA-99-5218, available at http://dms.dot.gov

Federal Register, 64 FR 29616 (June 2, 1999) available at http://www.access.gpo.gov/su_docs/aces/aces140.html

National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) International Symposium on Transportation Recorders. May 3-5, 1999, Washington, DC. Goal: To Share Knowledge and Experience Gained from the Use of Recorded Information to Improve Transportation Safety and Efficiency.

The proceedings from the NTSB symposium can be viewed in their entirety at:
http://www.ntsb.gov/events/symp_rec/symp_rec.htm

Kowalick, T. M. June, 1999. Perceptions of College Students Regarding Utilization of Transportation Recorders in the Highway Mode, Sandhills Community College, Pinehurst, North Carolina, 651 pgs. Available at http://normandy.sandhills.cc.nc.us/research/recorders.pdf

Kullgren, A. 1999. Crash-Pulse Recorders in Real-Life Accidents: Influence of Change of Velocity and Mean and Peak Acceleration on Injury Risk in Frontal Impacts. Folksam Research Foundation, Stockholm (Sweden) Karolinska Hospital, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Stockholm (Sweden) 8 p. Crash Prevention and Injury Control, Vol. 1, No. 2, Oct 1999, pp. 113-120. UMTRI-61230

Kullgren, A. 1999. (Folksam Res, Sweden, Sweden Thompson, R. (Chalmers Univ Technol, and Sweden Krafft, T. M. (Folksam Res. "The Effect of Crash Pulse Shape on AIS1 Neck Injuries in Frontal Impacts." Proceedings of the 1999 IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact, September 23-24, 1999, Sitges, Spain. 1999. pp231-42: 18 Refs.

Popov, A. A.; Cole, D. J.; Cebon, D.; Winkler, C. B. 1999. Energy Loss in Truck Tyres and Suspensions. Michigan University, Ann Arbor, Transportation Research Institute, Engineering Research Division. 12 p. Sponsor: Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (United Kingdom); Dunlop Tyre and Rubber, Birmingham (England); Cambridge Vehicle Dynamics Consortium. UMTRI-93076

Roszbach, R.; Heidstra, J.; Wouters, P. I. J. 1999. Data Recorders in Voertuigen; [Data Recorders in Vehicles] Netherlands, Rijkswaterstaat, Delft. 61 p. Sponsor: Institute for Road Safety Research SWOV, Leidschendam (Netherlands) Report No. R-99-26. UMTRI-93452

Ydenius, A.; Kullgren, A. 1999. Pulse Shapes and Injury Risks in Collisions with Roadside Objects: Result from Real-Life Impacts with Recorded Crash Pulses. Folksam Research Foundation, Stockholm (Sweden) 8 p. International IRCOBI Conference on the Biomechanics of Impacts. 1999. Proceedings. Bron (France), 1999. Pp. 435-442. UMTRI-92961 A26

1998

Federal Register, 63 FR 60222270 (November 9, 1998) available at http://www.access.gpo.gov/su_docs/aces/aces140.html

Kullgren, A.; Ydenius, A.; Tingvall, C. 1998. Frontal Impacts with Small Partial Overlap: Real Life Data from Crash Recorders. Folksam Research (Sweden) Karolinska Institutet, Department of Clinical Neuroscience and Family Medicine, Stockholm (Sweden) Swedish National Road Administration. 10 p. International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles. Sixteenth. Proceedings. Volume I. Washington, D.C., NHTSA, 1998. Pp. 259-268. Report No. 98-S1-O-13. UMTRI-92420 A38

Krafft, M.; Kullgren, A.; Tingvall, C. 1998. Crash Pulse Recorder in Rear Impacts -- Real Life Data. Folksam Research Foundation, Stockholm (Sweden)/ Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm (Sweden) Statens Vaeg- och Trafikinstitut, Linkoeping (Sweden) 7 p. International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles. Sixteenth. Proceedings. Volume II. Washington, D.C., NHTSA, 1998. Pp. 1256-1262. Report No. 98-S6-O-10. UMTRI-92421 A50

Matsumoto, K. 1998. Trends and Priorities in Motor Vehicle Safety for the 21st century: Japan. Japan Ministry of International Trade and Industry, Tokyo. 3 p. International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles. Sixteenth. Proceedings. Volume I. Washington, D.C., NHTSA, 1998. Pp. 85-87. UMTRI-92420 A15

Melvin, J. W.; Baron, K. J.; Little, W. C.; Gideon, T. W.; Pierce, J. 1998. Biomechanical Analysis of Indy Race Car Crashes. General Motors Corporation, Detroit, Mich./ Kestrel Advisors, Inc. 20 p. Stapp car crash conference. Forty-second. Proceedings. Warrendale, SAE, 1998. Pp. 247-266. Report No. SAE 983161. UMTRI-91882 A17

Phen, Dowdy, Ebbeler, Kim, Moore, and VanZandt; Advanced Air Bag Technology Assessment; JPL Publication 98-3; April 1998. This report can be found on the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory web site – http://csmt.jpl.nasa.gov/airbag/contents.html

Ueyama, M.; Ogawa, S.; Chikasue, H.; Muramatu, K. 1998. Relationship Between Driving Behavior and Traffic Accidents -- Accident Data Recorder and Driving Monitor Recorder. National Research Institute of Police Science, Tokyo (Japan)/ Yazaki Meter Corporation (Japan) 8 p. International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles. Sixteenth. Proceedings. Volume I. Washington, D.C., NHTSA, 1998. Pp. 402-409. Report No. 98-S1-O-06. UMTRI-92420 A53

Wright, P. G. 1998. The Role of Motorsport Safety. Federation Internationale de l'Automobile (England) 6 p. International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles. Sixteenth. Proceedings. Volume II. Washington, D.C., NHTSA, 1998. Pp. 1263-1268. Report No. 98-S6-O-12. UMTRI-92421 A51

1997

Andersson, U.; Koch, M.; Norin, H. 1997. The Volvo Digital Accident Research Recorder (DARR) Converting Accident DARR-Pulses Into Different Impact Severity Measures. Volvo Car Corporation, Automotive Safety Centre, Goeteborg (Sweden) 20 p. International IRCOBI conference on the biomechanics of impact. 1997. Proceedings. Hannover, IRCOBI, 1997. Pp. 301-320. UMTRI-92418 A19

“Colloquium on Monitoring of Driver and Vehicle Performance” Digest (Institution of Electrical Engineers) ; No 1997, no. 122. (1997).

Berg, F.; Alexander, M. 1997. Uwe, Bergisch Gladbach Bundesanstalt Fursstrassenwesen, and Berichte Der Bundesanstalt Fur Strassenwesen. Fahrzeugtechnik. "Accident Data Recorders as a Source of Information for Accident Research in the Pre-Crash Phase” (HEFT (1997).

Byrne, R. H.; Pletta, J. B.; Case, R. P.; Klarer, P. R.; Campbell, K. L.; Blower, D. 1997. Commercial Vehicle Incident Monitors. Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, N.M./ Michigan University, Ann Arbor, Transportation Research Institute, Center for National Truck Statistics. 243 p. Sponsor: Federal Highway Administration, Office of Motor Carriers, Washington, D.C. UMTRI-91197

Wouters, P.I.J. 1997. (SWOV, Netherlands, and Netherlands BOS JMJ) The Impact of Driver Monitoring With Vehicle Data Recorders on Accident Occurance: Methodology and Results of a Field Trial in Belgium and The Netherlands. (R-97-8) 64 pgs; 9 Refs.

1996

Korner, J. 1996. (Volvo Car Corp, Sweden. "The Safety Philosophy Guiding Car Design.” Proceedings of the Fifth World Congress of the International Road Safety Organization – Marketing Traffic Safety, Held 3-6 October 1994, Cape Town, Republic of South Africa. 1996. pp 319-26 : 10 Refs.

Lehmann, G. 1996. The Features of the Accident Data Recorder and its Contribution to Road Safety. VDO Kienzle GmbH, Villingen-Schwenningen (Germany) 4 p. International Technical Conference on Enhanced Safety of Vehicles. Fifteenth Proceedings. Volume 2. Washington, D.C., National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 1996. Pp. 1565-1568. Report No. 96-S9-W-34. UMTRI-91346 A54

Melvin, J. W.; Baron, K. J.; Little, W. C.; Pierce, J.; Trammell, T. R. 1996. Investigation of Indy Car Crashes Using Impact Recorders. General Motors Corporation, Research and Development Center, Warren, Mich./ General Motors Corporation, Motorsports, Warren, Mich./ Championship Automobile Racing Teams. 17 p. Motorsports Engineering Conference Proceedings. 1996. Volume 1: Vehicle Design Issues. Warrendale, SAE, 1996. Pp. 127-143. Report No. SAE 962522. UMTRI-89565 A02

The 7^th Westminister Lecture on Transport Safety. “A Holistic View of Automotive Safety.” 1996 17P (1996).

Ueyama, M.; Beppu, S.; Koura, M. 1996. Automatic Recording System and Traffic Accidents at Uncontrolled Intersections. National Research Institute of Police Science, Tokyo (Japan)/ Mitsubishi Electric Corporation (Japan) 11 p. International Technical Conference on Enhanced Safety of Vehicles. Fifteenth Proceedings. Volume 2. Washington, D.C., National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 1996. Pp. 1476-1486. Report No. 96-S9-O-17. UMTRI-91346 A44 1995

Fincham, W.F; Kast. A.; Lambourn, R.F. 1995. The Use of a High Resolution Accident Data Recorder in the Field; Paper No. 950351; SAE

1994

Kullgren, A.; Lie, A.; Tingvall, C. 1994. The Use of Crash Rcorders in Studying Real-Life Accidents. Chalmers Tekniska Hoegskola, Goeteborg, Sweden. 7 p. International Technical Conference on Enhanced Safety of Vehicles. Fourteenth. Proceedings, Volume 1. Washington, D.C., National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 1994. Pp. 856-862. UMTRI-88120 A79

Norin, H.; Koch, M.; Magnusson, H. 1994. Estimating Crash Severity in Frontal Collisions Using the Volvo Digital Accident Research Recorder (DARR). Volvo Car Corporation, Goeteborg, Sweden. 7 p. ISATA International Symposium on Automotive Technology and Automation, 27th. Proceedings for the Dedicated Conference on Road and Vehicle Safety. Croydon, Automotive Automation Ltd., 1994. Pp. 409-415. Report No. 94SF024. UMTRI-87370 A28

Williams, M.; Hoekstra, E. 1994. Comparison of Five On-Head, Eye-Movement Recording Systems. Final report. Michigan University, Ann Arbor, Transportation Research Institute. 88 p. Sponsor: Michigan University, Ann Arbor, IVHS Industrial Advisory Board. Report No. UMTRI-94-11. UMTRI-87344

1993

Aldman, B.; Kullgren, A.; Lie, A.; Tingvall, C. 1993. Crash Pulse Recorder (CPR) - Development and Evaluation of a Low Cost Device for Measuring Crash Pulse and Delta-V. Folksam Research and Development, Stockholm, Sweden/ Chalmers Tekniska Hoegskola, Goeteborg, Sweden. 5 p. International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles. Thirteenth. Proceedings. Volume I. Washington, D.C., NHTSA, 1993. Pp. 188-192. UMTRI-85231 A19

Lambourn R. F. 1993. 525 School Street SW Suite 410 Washington DC 20024 USA Institute of Transportation Engineers. "Road Accident Investigation as a Branch of Forensic Science." Conference Title: Compendium of Technical Papers, ITE, 63rd Annual Meeting Location: The Hague, Netherlands. Sponsored by: Institute of Transportation Engineers. Held: 19930919-19930922. 1993, no. 09. pp438-442 (1993): 21 Refs.

1992

Cheng, C. H.; Nachtsheim, C. J.; Benson, P. G. 1992. Statistical Methods for Optimally Locating Automatic Traffic Recorders. Ohio State University, Columbus/ Minnesota University, Minneapolis. 132 p. Sponsor: Transportation Department, Washington, D.C.; Mountain-Plains Consortium. Report No. MPC 92-14. UMTRI-84774

1991

Salomonsson, O.; Koch, M. 1991. Crash Recorder for Safety System Studies and as a Consumer's Product. Mannesmann Kienzle, Germany/ Volvo Car Corporation, Goeteborg, Sweden. 13 p. Frontal Crash Safety Technologies for the 90's. Warrendale, SAE, 1991. Pp. 21-33. Report No. SAE 910656. UMTRI-80924

1990

Texas Department of Transportation, 125 East 11th Street Austin TX 78701 2483 USA. "National Traffic Data Acquisition Technologies Conference, Austin, Texas, August 26-30, 1990.  PROCEEDINGS." Conference Title: National Traffic Data Acquisition Technologies Conference Location: Austin, Texas. Sponsored by: American Society for Testing and Materials; Texas A&M University; University of Texas; and Federal Highway Administration. Held: 19900826-19900830. 1990, no. 08. pp 432 (1990): Phots., Figs., Tabs., Refs.

1989

Adiv, A.; Ervin, R. D. 1989. Examination of Features Proposed for Improving Truck Safety. Final report. Michigan University, Ann Arbor, Transportation Research Institute. 95 p. Sponsor: Michigan Department of Transportation, Lansing. Report No. UMTRI-89-2. UMTRI-78350

1988

Panik, F. 1988. Future Aspects in Automotive Electronics. Daimler-Benz, AG, Stuttgart, Germany FR. 54 p. UMTRI-79073

Tumbas, N.S; Smith, R.A. 1988. Measuring Protocol for Quantifying Vehicle Damage from an Energy Basis Point of View; SAE 880072

1987

Panik, F.; Hamm, L.; Reister; Voy (1987) Einfluss der Elektronik auf den Automobilverkehr der Zunkunft; Influence of Electronics on Automobile Traffic of the Future. Daimler-Benz, AG, Stuttgart, Germany FR. 40 p. UMTRI-79072

Wilson, F. R. 1987. Measurement of Collision Avoidance Times. 1987 Annual Conference Proceedings: Roads and Transportation Association of Canada. B41- B61 (14 Refs.) Roads and Transportion Association of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

1986

Volkmar, H.; Koch, S.; Weber, R. 1986. Erhebung und analyse von Pkw-Fahrleistungsdaten mit Hilfe eines mobilen Datenerfassungssystems.; Acquiring and Analyzing Passenger Car Performance Data Using a Mobile Data Acquisition System. Infratest Sozialforschung, Germany FR/ Mannesman Kienzle, Germany FR. 76 p. Sponsor: Forschungsvereinigung Automobiltechnik e.V., Frankfurt, Germany FR. Report No. 61. UMTRI-76304

1985

Held, T. H. 1985. The Potential Use of Optical Videodiscs in Automotive Navigational Systems: a Prototype System. MetaMedia Systems, Inc., Germantown, Md. 3 p. Brown, I. D., Goldsmith, R., Coombes, K., and Sinclair, M. A., eds. Ergonomics International 85. Philadelphia, Taylor and Francis, 1985. Pp. 433-435. Report No. E5/3. UMTRI-74960

1984

Winkler, C. B.; Campbell, J. D.; Hagan, M. R. 1984. Vehicle Motion Measurement Technology. Final report. Michigan University, Ann Arbor, Transportation Research Institute. 63 p. Sponsor: General Motors Corporation, Proving Ground Section, Milford, Mich. Report No. UMTRI-84-20. UMTRI-71951

1982

Baker, W. T. 1982. Photologging. Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C. 44 p. National Cooperative Highway Research Program Synthesis of Highway Practice, No. 94, Nov 1982. Sponsor: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C. UMTRI-55285

Fraser. P. J. 1982. The ARRB Road Users Data Acquisition System (RUDAS) Australian Road Research Board, Vermont South. 21 p. Report No. ATM No. 14. UMTRI-47931

1981

Blauvelt, A. A.; Klein, R. H.; Peters, R. A. 1981. Instrumentation for Measuring Pavement-Vehicle Interaction. Volume III: Kennedy Co. Operation and Maintenance Manual, Formatter and Digital Tape Transport. Final report. Systems Technology, Inc., Hawthorne, Calif. 226 p. Sponsor: Federal Highway Administration, Structures and Applied Mechanics Division, Washington, D.C. Report No. TM-1109-1/ FHWA-RD-80-077. UMTRI-46632

Blauvelt, A. A.; Klein, R. H.; Peters, R. A. 1981. Instrumentation for Measuring Pavement-Vehicle Interaction. Volume II: Digalog Systems Operation and Maintenance Manual, Data Acquisition System, model DLI 203. Final report. Systems Technology, Inc., Hawthorne, Calif. 98 p. Sponsor: Federal Highway Administration, Structures and Applied Mechanics Division, Washington, D.C. Report No. TM-1109-1/ FHWA-RD-80-076. UMTRI-46631

Blauvelt, A. A.; Klien, R. H.; Peters, R. A. 1981. Instrumentation for Measuring Pavement-Vehicle Interaction. Volume I: System Description, Operation, Calibration and Maintenance Manual. Final report. Systems Technology, Inc., Hawthorne, Calif. 84 p. Sponsor: Federal Highway Administration, Structures and Applied Mechanics Division, Washington, D.C. Report No. TM-1109-1/ FHWA-RD-80-075. UMTRI-46630

Bowden, T. J.; Reichert, J. K.; Landolt, J. P. 1981. The Data Acquisition System at the DCIEM Impact Studies Facility. Defence and Civil Institute of Environmental Medicine, Downsview, Ontario, Canada. 8 p. Report No. SAE 810812. UMTRI-46023

Bowersock, R. G.; Dupree, J. F.; Bock, D. T. 1981. A Microcomputer-Based On-Vehicle Data Acquisition System. Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Mich. 11 p. Report No. SAE 810811. UMTRI-46024

Fouts, P. G.; Griggs, G. A.; Holdren, E. J. 1981. Digital Recording of Vehicle Crash Data. Chrysler Corporation, Highland Park, Mich. 13 p. Report No. SAE 810810. UMTRI-46006

Klaber, K. 1981. Advanced Automotive Crash Recorder Design Development and Test Analysis. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, D.C. 10 p. Report No. SAE 810809. UMTRI-46008

Reichert, J. K.; Landolt, J. P. 1981. Digital and Analog Filters for Processing Impact Test Data. Defence and Civil Institute of Environmental Medicine, Downsview, Ontario, Canada. 11 p. Report No. SAE 810813. UMTRI-46022

Thatcher, C. D. 1981. Advanced Recorder Design and Development. Final report. Dynamic Science, Inc., Phoenix, Ariz. 187 p. Sponsor: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, D.C. Report No. 8314-80-213/ DOT/HS 805 914. UMTRI-46293

1979

O'Neill, B.; Wong, J. 1979. A Laboratory Evaluation of a Low Cost Motor Vehicle Crash Recorder. Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, Washington, D.C. 7 p. Accident Analysis and Prevention, Vol. 11, No. 1, March 1979, pp. 43-49. UMTRI-54119

Ruschmann, P. A.; Carroll, H. O.; Greyson, M.; Joscelyn, K. B. 1979. An Analysis of the Potential Legal Constraints on the Use of Mechanical Devices to Monitor Driving Restrictions. Final report. Highway Safety Research Institute, Ann Arbor, Mich. 56 p. Sponsor: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, D.C. Report No. UM-HSRI-79-65/ DOT/HS 805 523. UMTRI-44938

Sherwin, J. R.; Kerr, J. D. 1979. Advanced Recorder Design Development. Final report. Teledyne Geotech, Garland, Tex. 46 p. Sponsor: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, D.C. Report No. DOT/HS 805 081. UMTRI-43051

Wyman, J. H. 1979. Event Recorder as a Turning Movement Indicator. Maine Department of Transportation, Augusta, Maine. Report Number: IM-3, 18 pgs (5 photos., Figs).

1978

Backaitis, S. H. 1978. Evaluation of New Instruments for Measurement of Differential Crash Velocity and for Sensing the Threshold of Critical Crash Intensity. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Office of Motor Vehicle Programs, Washington, D.C. 20 p. International Congress on Automotive Safety. Fifth. Proceedings. Washington, D.C., NHTSA, March 1978. Pp. 427-446. UMTRI-40399 A24

Wolf, R. J. 1978. A Solid-State Digital Data Recorder for Monitoring Automotive Crash Environments. Final report. Kaman Sciences Corporation, Colorado Springs, Colo. 73 p. Sponsor: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, D.C. Report No. DOT/HS-803 666. UMTRI-41371

1977

Damkot, D. K.; Geller, H. A.; Whitmore, D. G. 1977. Measuring Driver Performance: Instrumentation, Software, and Application. Vermont University, Burlington. 7 p. Sponsor: National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Rockville, Md. Report No. SAE 770813. UMTRI-38078

Glen, M.G.M; Powell, D.G. 1977. A Low-Cost, Portable Event-Recording System. Traffic Engineer Control. 1977/11. pgs 424-6 (1 photo; 3 figs.; 6 refs.)

Kaye, A. M.; Sandover, J.; Thomas, P. D. 1977. Apparatus for Field Studies of Man at Work. London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, England/ Loughborough University of Technology, Leicestershire, England. 2 p. Journal of Physiology, Vol. 268, No. 1, June 1977, pp. 5P-6P. Sponsor: Medical Research Council, London, England; Transport and Road Research Laboratory, Crowthorne, England. UMTRI-38402

Richter, V.; Kramer, M. 1977. Digitale Messdatenaufnahme und -verarbeitung bei Fussgaenger - Fahrzeug-Unfallexperimenten; Digital Data Collection and Processing in Pedestrian/Vehicle Accident Experiments. Berlin Technische Universitaet, Institut fuer Landverkehrsmittel, Germany FR. 3 p. ATZ, 79. Jahrgang, Nr. 11, Nov 1977, pp. 509-510, 513. UMTRI-53643

Strickland, L. R.; Wood, P. 1977. TRI-MET Automated Fare Billing System. Mitre Corporation, Metrek Division, McLean, Va. 48 p. Sponsor: Urban Mass Transportation Administration, Washington, D.C. Report No. MTR-7582 Rev. 2. UMTRI-40497

1976

Abromavage, J. C.; Beemer, R. L. 1976. A Data Acquisition Method for Dynamic Vehicle Testing. Amerco Technical Center, Phoenix, Ariz. 7 p. Report No. SAE 760789. UMTRI-35914

Backaitis, S. H.; Trout, E. M.; Wolf, R. J. 1976. The Development and Performance of a Self-Contained Solid-State Digital Crash Recorder for Anthropomorphic Dummies. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, D.C./ Federal Aviation Administration, Washington, D.C./ Kaman Sciences Corporation, Colorado Springs, Colo. 32 p. Report No. SAE 760013. UMTRI-33750

1976. Static Evaluation of Air Cushion Deployment Effects on the Memory Retention of the Solid-State Digital Recorder System. Final report. Kaman Sciences Corporation, Colorado Springs, Colo. 29 p. Sponsor: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, D.C. Report No. K-76-64-U(R)/ DOT/HS 802 040. UMTRI-35857

Hofferberth, J. E. 1976. User Data Needs. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, D.C. 6 p. Garrett, J. W., ed. Motor Vehicle Collision Investigation Symposium. Volume I: Proceedings. Buffalo, Calspan Corporation, Aug 1976. Pp. 143-148. UMTRI-35846 A08

1976. Fundamental Consideration on the Generation of Data for the Relation Between Vehicle Handling and Accident Avoidance with the Aid of Drive Recorders. Revised. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland. 16 p. Report No. ISO/TC 22/SC 9 Germany-6. UMTRI-34934

Enserink, E. 1976. Evaluation of Self-Contained Anthropomorphic Dummy Data Acquisition System. Final report. Dynamic Science, Phoenix, Ariz. 141 p. Sponsor: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, D.C. Report No. 3961-75-178/ DOT/HS 801 827. UMTRI-33788

1976. On-Board Computer Testing. 4 p. Automotive Engineering, Vol. 84, No. 11, Nov 1976, pp. 30-33. UMTRI-53122

Michalopoulos, P. G. 1976. Bus Priority System Studies. Florida University, Gainesville. 6 p. Traffic Engineering, Vol. 46, No. 7, July 1976, pp. 46-49, 52, 54. Sponsor: Transportation Department, Washington, ,D.C.; Florida Department of Transportation, Tallahassee. UMTRI-52996

O'Brien, C.; Paradise, M. G. A. 1976. The Development of a Portable Non-Invasi,ve System for Analyzing Human Movement. Nottingham University, Department of Production Engineering and Production Management, England. 3 p. International Ergonomics Association. 6th Congress. Proceedings. ,Santa Monica, Human Factors Society, 1976. Pp. 390-392. UMTRI-34935 A27

Wolf, R. J. 1976. A Solid-State Digital Data Recorder for Monitoring Anthropomorphic Dummy Impact Environments. Final report. Kaman Sciences Corporation, Colorado Springs, Colo. 74 p. Sponsor: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, D.C. Report No. K-76-28U(R)/ DOT/ HS 801 907. UMTRI-34533

1975

Appleby, M. R.; Bintz, L. J. 1975. Seat Belt Use-Inducing System Effectiveness. Final report. Automobile Club of Southern California, Automotive Engineering Department, Los Angeles. 45 p. Sponsor: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Office of Driver Performance Research, Washington, D.C. Report No. DOT/HS 801 503. UMTRI-32135

Enke, K. 1975. On the Necessity of Employing Driver Recorders for Investigation of the Relation Between the Dynamic Performance of Passenger Cars and Accident Prevention. Daimler-Benz AG, Stuttgart, Germany. 7 p. UMTRI-34939

1975. A Solid-State Recorder for Monitoring Anthropomorphic Dummy Impact Environments. Operator's manual for KSC recorder model ADO2T12. Preliminary edition. Kaman Sciences Corporation, Colorado Springs, Colo. 24 p. Report No. K-75-95U(R) UMTRI-33675

1975. American National Standard Guide for the Selection of Mechanical Devices Used in Monitoring Acceleration Induced by Shock. American National Standards Institute, Inc., New York, N.Y. 23 p. Sponsor: Society of Packing and Handling Engineers, Chicago, Ill. Report No. ANSI-S9.1-1975. UMTRI-33578

1975. A New look at Tachs - Use of Sangamo Tachographs for Safety. 3 p. Diesel Equipment Superintendent, Vol. 53, March 1975, pp. 32-34. UMTRI-33183

Enke, K. 1975. The Relation Between Vehicle Handling and Accident Avoidance. Daimler-Benz AG, Stuttgart, Germany. 3 p. International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles. Fifth. Report. Washington, D.C., GPO, 1975. Pp. 815-817. UMTRI-32385 A58

Hoffer, W. 1975. How They're Using